How Different Actual Practice of Law is from Law School Essay

How Different Actual Practice of Law is from Law School - Essay Example My placement experience helped me to realize how different the actual practice of law is from law school. According to McDockery, â€Å"the study of law is different from the practice of law†*3 and he highlights the fact that apart from writing and research skills, not much of what is learned at law school will be particularly relevant in practice. My placement experience corroborated this claim because I discovered that mere academic knowledge and the theory of law is not as important as interacting well with clients and professional code and ethics in actual practice. It was a revelation to me, as I watched my supervisor interacting with our clients and I realized that legal interviewing needs to be approached from a different angle as compared to other interviews.*4 The fact-finding mission that this entails often meets with subtle resistance from clients and especially poses a challenge when dealing with clients who are not familiar with English since there is a possibilit y for distortions during translation.*5 Such clients are often unaware that client privilege is their fundamental civil right as established by the Courts*6 and they are reluctant to be completely honest with their lawyers. But this was not the only area where I discovered that practice is different from theory. While law school provided me with the background of the law, actual practice concerns the application of the law. Earlier, my understanding of the law was directed towards its mechanics, whereas I obtained a clearer perspective of the law that conditions a lawyer’s actions during my placement experience. As Bernie Marden puts it, professions today operate in a world where â€Å"public policy applies regulation, co-regulation, and self-regulation in varying degrees†*7 and this is why it was deemed necessary to introduce the Professional Standards Act of 1994 in Australia.  Ã‚  

Voice over Internet Protocol Security Vulnerability and Risk Analysis Literature review

Voice over Internet Protocol Security Vulnerability and Risk Analysis - Literature review Example In modern times different means and mechanisms are being introduced for establishing communication with one another. The aim behind all of them has been to work on those lines that ensure reliable, fast and economical sources that can enable connecting people from across the borders and shores. The progress so made is so immense that people sitting across the continent can get in touch and see each other in matter of few seconds. Different means exist for such concepts. All those means of communication that have existed in history were conducted with a concern and consideration of privacy in them. This is achieved through encryption of data that is being exchanged between the two points. Voice over I.P (VOIP) is one of them. It has gained popularity in recent times and is being widely used .Like every other system in the field of telecommunications; VOIP has its strengths as well as weaknesses. Like every other internet utility, it has its own vulnerabilities and security concerns. This paper looks into the vulnerabilities and risks affiliated with it, further touching on the features being provided by it along with its working principles in brief. The paper also looks into the role of Voice over I.P Security Alliance and its efforts to meeting the demands in terms of narrowing down the vulnerabilities that exist in various forms. Keywords: VoIP, Open standard, Vulnerability, Denial of Service. ... VOIP is established on the concept of open standards to maximum its use and accessibility (Ellis, Pursell & Rahman,pg 250, 2003). Interoperability is another feature that is making inroads across the platform all over. Having mentioned the features that are being provided by VOIP, a serious concern is being raised about its security aspect. Many a times it is being tagged as vulnerable in terms of security aspects. For this purpose efforts are needed to be in place which will insure the safety of all parameters involved in this. This is possible through study of all those areas which have loop holes in them and further working on those areas will make this a safe source of communication for customers to use. VOIP is a generic term for number of applications intended for establishing connection (Persky 2007); it could be the chat client establishment, the phone call conversation, the SMS service establishment. VOIP makes use of number of protocols that contain both the open protocols and proprietary protocols. Through the use of single broadband line, VOIP enables sending voice signals, data that includes textual format and video format information. The vulnerabilities are not just limited to its usage and application, rather operating systems, and protocols used (McGann & Sicker 2005). Types of calls possible with VOIP: Unicast calls: This kind of calling conversation involves the minimum number of parties, one at each end. It is the SIP or H.323 based call. Mostly the traffic and conversation is not encrypted and hence unsafe. Multi cast calls (limited number of callers): This includes more than two users involved in a conversation at one time. Usually a conference call where the first two establish a

Broadcasting of the BBC Documentary The Secret Policeman Essay Example for Free

Broadcasting of the BBC Documentary The Secret Policeman Essay On Tuesday 21st October 2003, the BBCs documentary The Secret Policeman was broadcast to approximately 5 million viewers in Britain. Mark Daly, an undercover reporter had spent seven months posing as a fellow trainee at the Bruche National Training Centre in Cheshire to film an exposà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ on racism among police recruits. The film not only provided evidence of police racism but also highlighted the stereotypical representations of Black identity within Western ideology. In this essay I propose to investigate how the British medias representation of Blacks has, rather than reflecting reality, constructed it. My research predominantly focuses on evidence gathered from racial reports and theories of the 1980s until the present day and examines the development, if any, within race representation in the media. Pre-1980s case studies are generally omitted because of the rapid development of discussion of racial issues as a reaction to the brutal riots of that decade. Additionally, the institutional and individual stereotyping revealed within The Secret Policeman can be directly related to prevalent issues specifically within the media of the previous two decades. Controversially, I ultimately aim to depict The Secret Policeman as a symbol of advancement in Black representation within Britain. The use of the term Black bastard and Nigger isnt racist The Secret Policemans inclusion of a clip of racist remarks by the Police Federations Representative in 1983 is an accurate reflection of the racial turmoil that Britains Institutions and communities were in. Black lawlessness was an image that dominated the Press reporting on riots from 1980 85. A predominantly Black riot against at Bristols police force in 1980 was followed by further confrontational outbreaks in 1981. The first two years of riots gained Britains (particularly young) West Indian community the reputation for being notorious for muggings, assaults and murders2 but nonetheless presented a slight initial interest into the awareness of the underlying causes. The scale of Britains urban unrest between these years varied considerably but the sequence of violence after 1980 forced the political agenda to include an examination of the origins of the protests. The Press employed Brixton (1981) to highlight the need for enhanced Government economic policies; As we condemn th e senseless terror we also condemn the deep seated social problemswhich spawned them. From 1983 to 1985 Britains poor and predominantly West Indian and Asian neighbourhoods experienced social disturbances, as was the case in 1981. Once more, the media endorsed the riots as the criminal acts of black, inner-city youths but this time they were not linked to ethnic inequality, oppression or socio-economic frustration but only to the Blacks position in society and their undermining of the law and cultural traditions of the minority communities themselves. The British presss reaction to the prominence of riots particularly during 1985 was to decline both generally to examine the reasons for them and specifically to consider ethnical inequality as a cause. Subjects of immigration, housing, employment, social facilities and race relations within the civic authorities that were central to the causes of the urban violence, were abandoned for crude simplifications that represented Blacks as the sole initiators of the violence. The criminal identity with which the media had labe lled Blacks was not wholly fictitious. Anecdotal evidence of provocative quotes and repetition of unreliable stories would always operate within a dominant regime of truth4. Crimes involving Blacks were given disproportionate coverage that suggested a behavioural generalisation that would never be suggested of Whites. Stereotyping was not the only form of racism; more covertly the press would exclude or misconstrue statistics such as those that showed Blacks to be twice as likely to be out of work as their counterparts. The coverage of Tottenhams 1985 riot gave less publicity to the death of a lack woman than the ensuing disturbances in which a police constable was murdered. The policemans role as a victim totally overshadowed the mourning of the aggressor that the Black fatality was consigned to. The perspective within which coloured people are presented as ordinary members of society has become increasingly overshadowed by a news perspective in which they are presented as a problem. Teun. A. Van Dijk was highly influenced by Hartmann and Husbands early study of racism in the press which concluded the above labelling of Blacks. According to Van Dijk the riots were topicalized in a style recognisable across the entire media front; the event, the causes and the consequences. Contrary to using these journalistic traits to investigate all areas of the riots, Britains media manipulated it as a means of reporting on selective data. The event was described as the attacks of mobs of black youths; in order to maintain the stimulus once the disturbance was over the primary definition of the cause of the riots was in terms of Black criminality in preference to the inner city conditions. Finally, the exoneration of Institutional Britain was enabled through the reports focus into future containment, policing and inquiries. The report pattern of Black mob, Black crime and Black prevention was typical of a whole generations instinctive approach to Black Britain. The medias resp onse to the 1980s riots created and regurgitated images of Black male criminals. Blacks in non-race stories were not considered newsworthy. Encouragingly by the 1980s Black was on the political agenda; however by 1985 it had been relegated from the social issue some commentators had perceived, via a social problem to a social evil. If the medias hegemonic reports and editorials in the 1980s were classed as a barely disguised belief in White supremacy, The Secret Policeman strangely that that attitude to Blacks is as strong today as ever it was then. Im a firm believer that Pakis create racism. Most Asians carry knives. The thing in London is, the majority of street robbery is Black In 1982 the Commission for Racial Equality published the first code of practice on eliminating discrimination and promoting equal opportunities, which was speedily identified by a Daily Telegraph editorial as bossy nonsense. Arguably the code of practice was counter-productive. Attacks on anti-racist and equal rights movements were at their height during the period of 1983 to 1986, when Black became Britains pretext for social disturbances. Resistance towards such movements was accused of stirring racial tension through excessive political correctness. For much of the press, racism was a manufactured problem of the anti-racist left, found in social science research programmes, anti-racist projects and multi-cultural education. The anti-racist social learning process created accusations of anti-English indoctrination thus posing a threat to White elitism, dominance and control. Thatchers Institutionally right-wing Britain defined itself as a protagonist of the attacks from the left th at they believed favoured special treatment of multicultural Britain. Significantly, the immediate Government response to The Secret Policeman undercover investigation was given by the home secretary David Blunkett, who criticised the BBC for their intent to create, not report, a storyas a covert stunt to get attention According to the Guardians most recent statistics, ethnic minorities make up 9% of the UKs population. In more urban areas such as Greater Manchester where The Secret Policeman was filmed, this percentage is believed to reach figures as high as 30%. However, the documentary showed Warrington police training base to consist of 118 white and one Asian recruit. Notably, Black people in are massively under-represented in Parliament. New Western societies still show many forms of institutional and everyday discrimination that David Blunkett arguably hoped to dismiss with a similar response to the 1980s critical analysis of racist exposs. Over a month before The Secret Policeman was broadcast, John Gieve, the permanent Secretary at the Home Office wrote to the BBC a letter that they described as unprecedented pressure to bully them into withdrawing the programme. The chief constable of Greater Manchester Police also intimidated the BBC with the threat of a Hutton-style inquiry that could d estroy the BBCs relationship with the police. Mark Dalys work within the police force was cut short when arrested on suspicion of deception and damaging police property; charges were dropped when embarrassingly for the police, the public were informed of the institutional racism. The Observer newspaper considered the Whitehall and police resistance worthy of its front-page headline Home Office tried to axe BBC police race expos. Headlines are carefully devised as a pithy synopsis of the story. They quickly impart knowledge in a way which facilitates both understanding and recall. The headlines of news reports about ethnic affairs summarize events that the medias white academics, teachers, writers and political activists define as relevant to white and black readers interests. The medias manipulation of headlines dramatized the 1980s anti-racism only to emphasise the Western ideology of Black negativity. For example the Telegraphs conspicuous headline bossy nonsense clearly established the tedium felt by the author towards the issue of tackling racism. The Observers recent negative portrayal of institutional antagonists of anti-racism reveals a positive shift from the medias earlier resentment towards the anti-racist movements. So what is the ideological impli cation of the shift from 1980s resentment to the Observers stance? How is the exposure of racism in todays society a sign of improved race-relations? Who is to blame for todays existing racism? Is it the BBCs fault this has happened? BBC Radio One questioned both the responsibility of the police and the media in the revelation of The Secret Policeman. Radio One criticised the constable of North Wales for his reference to the hysteria related to terrorism, extremist Muslims and asylum as the rationale for increased racist views. Blaming society, it commented, was no option for police professionals who should concentrate on training and challenge prejudice15. Is the BBCs accusation equitable or is pardoning society a means of pardoning the media to ultimately pardon itself? How we are seen determines in part how we are treated; how we treat others is based on how we see them; such seeing comes from representation.16 Traditionally founded on Reithian ideas of independence, access and expression, the BBC aimed to inform, educate and entertain the masses. The BBC devised itself an identity as the national cultural institution that would represent Britains public through Britains voice. In a statement following the arrest of Mark Daly, the BBC reflected the all-purpose mission they were founded upon: We believe this to be a matter of significant public interest17. The BBC, in essence, the media, is a powerful realm of social whiteness that manipulates the patterns of inter-elite communication. The ethnic minorities in Britain even today remain concentrated in relatively few areas. As a result huge numbers of the White majority rely almost exclusively on the media for knowledge of issues concerning their Black counterparts. The formations and continuance of White attitudes are therefore highly reliant upon the medias portrayal of race-relations; most frequently found in the news. The news is an every day routine structure, and in literal terms can be defined as a classical realist text. However, Nichols recognises that the reality of news takes precedence over the news of reality18, thus enabling it to empower, or dis-empower its subject. In these terms the subject is Black and the empowerment is integral to the serious issue of Black nationhood and identity. When reality is represented, its former unequivocal status becomes ambiguous; news is static but its context is not. For example, patterns of race reporting can attach themselves to the wider subjects of Black British existence, a procedure that Sarita Malik terms leitmotif. During the 1980s riots, the Black identity was frequently referred to in terms of former race-related violence. Leitmotifs thus manipulated the reality to familiarise the White-eye with often-unrelated parables of Black anger that consequently created a distorted mis-information about the original conflict. In contrast, representing reality can be equal ly deceitful through a negation of context. The news according to Malik is best at representing what and why but regularly fails to recognise the socio-political reasoning behind it. In terms of race relations of the last two decades Britains media tends to focus excessively on the wider context of Black struggle yet too seldom on the social context that fuels this struggle. The BBCs decision to resist Governmental and Federal pressures and broadcast The Secret Policeman implied a positive shift in its allegiance to the White ruling classes. Although this documentary was yet another portrayal of the problem-orientated Black, uniquely the revolting19 and Appalling, racist revelations20 were more optimistically acknowledged as White. The television documentary is based on questions of identity that engage with the construction of relationships between subject, audience and the camera or narrator. The cinematography is used as a tool of authority in which the spectator is lured into believing they are a observing a record of untouched and immediate reality. But reality, as clarified previously, can be more ambiguous than anticipated. In fact, the illusion that a documentary allows the subject to speak for itself without moralising or judging is, like the news, a powerful status to possess. Documentaries are the most likely genre to directly address socio-political affairs and on the rare occasion of the medias attention to multicultural development it is most probable they will be used. Unfortunately, documentaries of the 1950s were emotive, sentimental and practically vague and similarly. The 1960s gave little hope for a genre increasingly lacking in sensitivity and awareness towards the Black subject. In contrast to the pathos of the 1950s White pity toward Blacks, the 1960s employed tones of hostility, fear and conflict. Thus, the erratic history of the socialist documentary was influential and manipulative towards the enhancement of Governmental attacks that ran adjacent to the anti-racist campaigns of the 1980s. The development of light and cheap video recording equipment has made the video diary an accessible and extremely popular style of documentary since the late 1990s; a development that enabled the BBC to produce The Secret Policeman. Improved camera technology initiated independent film-making and in effect greater social analysis during the 1990s, but this was not the only continuity in televisions social eye. Governmental, cultural and economic forces were evolving towards todays individualistic, consumerist and multicultural society; television had to ke ep pace. The documentary shifted from social generalisations to pluralism and for the first time society was eclipsed by individualism and lifestyle. Although the 1990s showed much resistance to an increasingly cross-cultural and mixed-race Britain, the definition of society and Britishness undoubtedly required re-examination. Isnt it good how memories dont fade? He [Steven Lawrence] fucking deserved it and his mum and dad are a fucking pair of spongers. PC Rob Pullings acclamation of the murderers and derision of the family of black student Steven Lawrence shocked viewers of The Secret Policeman. Lawrences mother was particularly disheartened, stating, that, after all this time, people still held those views.22 The stereotyping of Black people as spongers or scroungers is one that was upheld and confirmed during the rioting period of the 1980s. The Diasporas posed a threat to Britain as a consequence of its deficiency in resources and increasing immigration numbers. In 1968 Enoch Powell suggested a much favoured but conclusively rejected topic relatable to Thatchers new 1980s, right wing government; that of repatriation. Repatriation essentially warned Blacks to behave or go home. Powell returned to his theme in the wake of the 1985 Handsworth riots to create a climate of racist opinion. Immigration had become among the most prominent Press subjects, during which, one tabloid claimed that immigrants cost the taxpayer billions of pou nds. Black people were constituted as the welfare states problem that added to taxation through an exploitation of the White supremacist welfare state. In 1984, the News of the World printed the headline à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½476 a week for waiter Abdul. The Daily Mail picked up on this story, printing a day later; Jobless Abdullife of luxury in hotelsat the taxpayers expense.24 The actuality of this story is that the 476 payment that was referred to was an inclusive sum covering the cost of housing Abdul, his wife and his six children. More interestingly, Abdul Bari was a British citizen. In 1999, six years after the Lawrence incident, Sir William Macpherson undertook a high profile investigation into the racism and discrimination in the Metropolitan Police Force.His Report coined the phrase institutional racism. This triggered discussions of discrimination within Britains leading institutions: the police, the media, the education system and the government. Following the Lawrence enquiry huge numbers of police were forced to undertake intensive training in racial equality and similar, revised programmes are ongoing today. One police force in Britain sent 40 000 employees on race training days within the last year, but Pullings overt racism raises questions of the efficacy of the Home Offices current strategy of challenging prejudice. In the concluding chapter of her book Representing Black in Britain, Sarita Malik makes a discouragingly negative, albeit honest assertion that the accepted sentiment that racist Britain is in decline is somewhat false. By this, she suggests that racism in the media, as in other public sectors, has merely been concealed. Malik proposed that truthful representations could emerge only through more diverse, aesthetically innovative and accurate portrayals of Blacks. More relevantly to The Secret Policeman, Malik highlighted the need for a rethink of the constituent parts that compose Britains media: resources, employment and ultimately its national heritage. Whilst the number of Blacks and ethnic minorities on British television has increased dramatically particularly in urban based soaps such as Holby City and Eastenders the production teams and editors continue to favour Whites. My premise that The Secret Policemen established an interesting relationship with the development of Brit ish media was formed whilst listening to a Radio Four news programme. It suggested that The Secret Policeman provided hard evidence that racism had gone underground. The programme concluded that although the police understood the shoulds and shouldnts of racial procedures, impartiality was never entrenched in their hearts and minds. Consistently with my research, the social learning process of the media has potentially played a huge role in PC Pullings racist prejudices and discrimination. Racism is not innate after all; it is learned. So how is it that I feel confident to propose The Secret Policeman as evidence of enhanced race-relations within the media? The role of the media is not isolated, but connected in numerous ways to the elites in general; this time it stood alone. The BBC assumed the role of the anti-racist and confronted the majority. The Secret Policeman exposed to huge public numbers, the long-standing stereotypes of the ruling-race and gave scope for investigating the origins of such beliefs. More positively the documentary received instant and drastic responses from both the public and the institutions. The Home Office immediately introduced plans for new police integrity tests and understood the need for societal change. The medias willingness to scrutinise and criticise the racism revealed in The Secret Policeman marked a complete reversal from the attacks on anti-racism evident in the 1980s. The Secret Policeman has served a distinctive purpose. It has illustrated what has long been apparent but too rarely admitted; White power is dangerously flawed. BIBLIOGRAPHY Ferguson, Robert. Representing Race, 1998. Arnold: London Gordon, Paul Rosenberg, David. The Press and black people in Britain, 1989. Runnymede Trust: Nottingham Malik, Sarita. Representing Black in Britain, 2002. Sage: London Solomos, John. Race and Racism in Contemporary Britain, 1989. Macmillan: London Troyna, Barry. Public awareness and the media, 1981. Commission for Racial Equality: London Van Dijk, Tuen A. Racism and the Press, 1991. Routledge: London and New York

Crime Scene Investigations by First Responders

Crime Scene Investigations by First Responders Crime scenes contain the forensic evidence required to apprehend criminals. The proper collection and processing of physical evidence is of primary importance to most police investigations. Evidence can not only establish the fact of the offense and identify the perpetrator, it may even lead to a conviction. In collecting this evidence we must be conscious of the publics Fourth Amendment rights and not violate them in this collection of evidence. Unfortunately, poorly conducted crime scene investigations can sometimes either destroy evidence or render it useless. Law Enforcement should approach the crime scene investigation as if it will be their only opportunity to preserve and recover these physical clues. They should consider other case information or statements from witnesses or suspects carefully in their objective assessment of the scene. Investigations may change course a number of times during such an inquiry and physical clues, initially thought irrelevant, may become crucial to a successful resolution of the case. The primary responsibilities of the initial responder to a crime include the following: (1) to preserve life; and (2) to control suspects and witnesses. Once these two objectives have been achieved, the initial responder should focus their attention on protecting the crime scene. The initial response to an incident shall be expeditious and methodical. Upon arrival, the officer(s) shall assess the scene and treat the incident as a crime scene. The initial responder should note or log dispatch information such as names, address, time, type of call, and any other relevant information. Be aware of any persons or vehicles leaving the crime scene. The importance of preserving the scene and its adjacent areas in their original condition cannot be overemphasized. Approach the scene cautiously, scan the entire area to thoroughly assess the scene, and note any possible secondary crime scenes. Be aware of any persons and vehicles in the vicinity that may be related to the crime. Remain alert an d attentive; Assume the crime is ongoing until determined to be otherwise. also treat the location as a crime scene until assessed and determined to be otherwise. It is usually the uniformed peace officer who first arrives at the scene of a crime. After controlling any dangerous situations or persons, the initial responding officers next responsibility is to ensure that medical attention is provided to injured persons while minimizing contamination of the scene. The initial responding officer shall ensure that medical attention is provided with minimal contamination of the scene by guiding medical personnel to the victim to minimize contamination or alteration of the crime scene. Point out potential physical evidence to medical personnel, instruct them to minimize contact with such evidence (e.g., ensure that medical personnel preserve all clothing and personal effects without cutting through bullet holes, knife tears), and document movement of persons or items by medical personnel. Instruct medical personnel not to clean up the scene and to avoid removal or alteration of items originating from the scene. Protecting the evidence typically involves the establishing a perimeter. In fact, for some crime scenes, two perimeters may be appropriate (Garrison, 1994, pp. 18-20). Only the investigator in charge and those personnel that he gives permission to should be allowed to cross these boundaries (Dienstein, 1962, pp. 16-26). Detectives and supervisors are normally in charge of investigations. There should, however, only be one person in charge of the crime scene itself. The first question that the investigator will ask when he arrives is as follows: Has anyone been allowed to enter the scene? (Dienstein, 1962, pp. 16-26)? The investigator should then use whatever resources are available (e.g., barricades or other uniformed officers) to further protect the area. Such measures exclude both curious bystanders and curious officials. Investigators often must turn away any number of officialsboth in and out of uniformwho could unintentionally destroy evidence. Once the area has been secured, the investigator then carries out the duties of search commander. Initially, the commander must obtain the following information: The time of the arrival of the first officer at the scene, who was present, what was said, and whether or not everything is exactly as it was when the officer arrived (Dienstein, 1962, pp. 16-26). Then, the addresses of all persons found on or adjacent to the scene should be collected. Although these people are questioned about their exact location at the time of the crime, they do not usually undergo interrogation on the spot. Rather, such persons are simply removed from the scene and separated: They should not be allowed to talk to each other until each has been carefully questioned and statements have been obtained individuals considered as suspect(s) should be read their Miranda Rights. Any violation of Fourth Amendment rights could jeopardize any evidence obtained during an interrogation or interview for use in the case at a trial. The next phase of crime scene investigation consists of surveying the scene. Defining and controlling boundaries provide a means for protecting and securing the crime scene(s). The number of crime scenes and their boundaries are determined by their location(s) and the type of crime. Boundaries shall be established beyond the initial scope of the crime scene(s) with the understanding that the boundaries can be reduced in size if necessary but cannot be as easily expanded. The investigator needs to get an over-all picture of the area in which the offense occurred (Dienstein, 1962, pp. 16-26). After a preliminary survey has been performed, the crime scene examination should be initiated. The investigator must try to start the investigation cold (Dienstein, 1962, pp. 16-26). There should be no preconceived notions of what happened, how it happened, or who might have done it. Such conclusions must be based solely on the evidence found at the scene. It is during this initial stage of the investigation, that the search commander has the scene photographed and sketched. Photography provides investigators with an accurate and permanent record. Nothing at a crime scene should ever be touched, picked up, or moved until it has been photographed. Only a true photograph can be presented in court (Dienstein, 1962, pp. 16-26). If it can be shown that something in the picture was tampered with, or that there are objects present that were not there originally, then the photograph cannot be used as evidence. Photographers should be present throughout the investigation. In addition to photographs, the search commander also has a sketch made of the area. Sketching should be started as soon as possible. These freehand drawings are typically oriented by compass directions. Moreover, the location of all sketched objects should be determined by accurate measurements. While photographs reproduce everything within the range and field of the camera l ens, sketches include only certain essential items. There are three types of crime scene photographs and sketches. These include the following: (1) those that describe the locality; (2) those that reproduce the immediate grounds; and (3) those that cover the details of the scene. Locality reproduction produces a picture of the crime scene and its surroundings. These pictures should include such things as neighboring buildings, streets, and sidewalks. Second, reproductions of the grounds should describe the crime scenes immediate surroundings (e.g., the house, the garden, etc.). Finally, a details picture shows only the scene itself (e.g., the room in which the offense was committed). During photography and sketching, the search commander must formulate a plan of action. This involves designating the various crime scene areas and objects that need to be searched and inspected. The commander must also decide how many investigators to assign to the case. Once the search has begun, it is up to the searchers to decide what objects will be dusted for latent prints and what objects will be removed as evidence. Searches need to be both thorough and accurate: Nothing should be taken for granted. Furthermore, searchers should not attempt to rely on their memories. Instead, everything of possible significance must be recorded (Dienstein, 1962, pp. 16-26). With the development of more advanced laboratory technologies, the role of physical evidence in the apprehension and prosecution of criminals has expanded considerably. It is generally assumed that by gathering more evidence, the investigator increases the likelihood of identifying the suspects (Greenwood et al., 1977, pp. 165-166). Evidence is defined as anything that may be presented in determining the truth about a fact in question (Dienstein, 1962, pp. 16-26). Physical evidence has three general purposes: (1) it can verify that a crime has been committed; (2) it can identify the person or persons who committed the crime; and (3) it can exonerate all other persons who may be under suspicion. Physical evidence proving that a crime has been committed may include such things as broken door locks or bodily injury to the complainant. Evidence indicating that the suspect was at the scene of the crime can consist of fibers or injury to the suspect (Greenwood et al., 1977, pp. 143-149). T hese forms of evidence support probable cause in having a warrant issued for further investigations that lead away from the actual crime scene. There are two main types of evidence found at crime scenes: (1) fixed evidence; and (2) movable evidence. Fixed evidence includes such things as latent fingerprints, shoe prints, tire prints, tool marks, and objects which cannot be removed because of bulk, weight, or other factors. In contrast, movable evidence consists of items which can be easily removed and stored. Finally, it should also be noted that almost anything can constitute a clue in a criminal investigation. Therefore, everything must be recorded and nothing should be overlooked. Once evidence is discovered, the search commander should have its location reproduced by sketch and/or photograph. The commander then marks the evidence for purposes of identification. The searcher who discovered the evidence should stand by as a witness to this marking and handling procedure. The term, chain of custody, refers to the possession of evidence (Dienstein, 1962, pp. 16-26). Investigators must be able to establish the continuous possession of evidence from the moment that it is discovered until the time that it is presented in court. By having the search commander handle all evidence, this chain of custody is reduced. In recent years, many police departments have augmented their evidence gathering capabilities by hiring additional personnel. Evidence technicians, or Crime Scene Search Officers, are highly trained crime scene processing specialists (Greenwood et al., 1977, pp. 143-149). These personnel can be dispatched just like patrol officers. Evidence technicians are generally used whenever there is retrievable physical evidence, or whenever the patrol officer feels that a photograph of the crime scene could be of benefit (Greenwood et al., 1977, pp. 143-149). A coroner may also be present at a crime scene. Coroners serve as a middle man between the medical examiner and law enforcement (Voelker, 1995, p. 1164). A coroner with forensic training may also act as a liaison between law enforcement, the media, and the public. The presence of many diverse personnel at a crime scene can give rise to conflict. However, everyone present has a specific job to do; moreover, each individual task is an important part of the entire mission. Search commanders should direct all activities such that conflict is minimized. As Dienstein (1962) emphasizes, Teamwork is essential to crime scene search (Dienstein, 1962, pp. 16-26). Besides hiring personnel, many departments are also in the process of updating their criminalist equipment. For example, Anchorage Alaskas police department recently converted a customized motor home into a modern crime scene vehicle. By making crime scene investigation faster and more thorough, such tools can improve a teams overall efficiency. There are various problems that may be encountered during crime scene investigations. Two of these include staging and contamination. Staging involves the alteration of a crime scene prior to the arrival of police. There are different reasons for staging. For one, an offender might try to direct investigators attention elsewhere. Such persons may act overly cooperative or appear extremely distraught. Second, staging can also represent an attempt to protect either the victim or the victims family. Such cases usually involve people who are concerned about the position, dress, or condition of a victims body (Douglas Munn, 1992, pp. 1-10). Perhaps the biggest problem that crime scene technicians face, however, is crime scene contamination. Sensitive forensic techniques may be adversely affected by crime scene trampling. Police departments should have a written policy regarding crime scene protection and preservation. In addition, supervisors and investigators must set an example for the entire crime scene team by adhering to the guidelines. Crime scene investigation is a complex process. It involves a number of different professionals and various areas of expertise. Only by acting as a team, however, will the members of such a diverse group ensure that their efforts result in a reasonable outcome. The alteration of a crime scene can cause investigators to draw erroneous conclusions. By expeditiously carrying out his responsibilities, the initial responder may determine the ultimate outcome of an entire investigation.

Invention of the Phonograph Essay -- Exploratory Essays Research Paper

Invention of the Phonograph The idea of the phonograph came from the man who invented the light bulb. Thomas Alva Edison is one of the greatest inventors of all time decided to create this invention. In 1877, Edison was working on a machine that would decipher telegraphic messages to paper tape. He used a diaphragm with an embossing point. This would be held onto a moving paraffin paper. Thus when spoken into it, the vibrations made indentations on it. Edison decided to change the idea by using a tin foil wrapped metal cylinder instead of the paper. The final cylinder phonograph had 2 diaphragm and needle units. One would be for recording date and the other would be for playing it. For the machine to work, one would have to speak into a mouthpiece and the sound vibrations would be imprinted on the cylinder. Then the recording needle would create some sort of groove pattern on the cylinder. The data can then played by back by the data from the created grooves. From this invention Edison started the Edison Speaking Phonograph Company in 1878. Edison had received $10,000 for the sales and manufacturing rights plus 20% of the profits from this company. The machine had a variety of uses including dictation, creating listening books, a sort of a â€Å"family record† which had precious recorded memories of the family like last words, teaching elocution, adn other uses as well The cylinder phonograph proved to be successful, but the problem with the machine was that the tin foil only allowed a few uses. With the help of another great inventor, new advances could be made to improve this invention. The inventor of the telephone, Alexander Graham Bell, had set up a laboratory for his cousin, Chichester Bell and Charles Tainter. Bell a... ...ndex.asp?s=1&mode=long. 7. â€Å"The History of the Edison Cylinder Phonograph.† American Memory: Historical Collects for National Digital Library 13 Mar. 2003. http://lcweb2.loc.gov/ammem/edhtml/edcyldr.html. 8. â€Å"The History of the Edison Disc Phonograph.† American Memory: Historical Collects for National Digital Library 13 Mar. 2003. http://lcweb2.loc.gov/ammem/edhtml/eddschst.html. 9. â€Å"The History of Turntablism.† Ilikemusic.com. 21 Mar. 2003. http://www.ilikemusic.com/index.asp?fdLocation=%2Farticle%2Easp%3FfdSectionid%3D2%26fdSubsectionid%3D11%26fdArticleId%3D128. 10. â€Å"The Rave Page.† Angelfire.com 13 Mar. 2003. http://www.angelfire.com/ar2/raves/. 11. â€Å"Turntables and CD players.† Turnt(L)able.com 13 Mar. 2003. http://www.turntablelab.com/index1.html. 12. â€Å"Turntable History.† Enjoy the Music.com 13 Mar. 2003. http://www.turntablelab.com/index1.html.

religion :: essays research papers

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Reflection Paper   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   â€Å"Who is God?†, this becomes as impossible a question to answer as the question â€Å"Who am I?†. Michael Himes, the author of this book which is called, Doing the Truth In Love, expresses his ideas and thoughts on how we are supposed to think about God, feel about God, and understand who and what God is. Mr. Himes, explains first and foremost that God is a mystery. He gives his opinions on how He is mystery and on how we should identify â€Å"God with God†. Himes states that God is agape, unconditional love. My problem with this is how does Himes know who or what God is? He has never met God, to find out and he has never asked God either. We believe that God has undying and pure love for us but we don’t know that for sure. God is the Trinity, meaning the father, son, and holy spirit. So is it that when Himes means that god is mystery, agape, and relationship; he means that the trinity stands for these three definitions of God? I t hink so.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  God is a mystery because we can’t fully understand God. We know he exists but we haven’t seen him, heard him talk or touched him, so how do we know he is not a complete mystery, I believe that to learn and understand God to our fullest capabilities, we have to undergo a â€Å"leap of faith†. We have to be willing to read and understand God’s message to us. We have to understand what He went through and why He did the things, he did. For example, he died for us. Why did He do this when He could have simply said â€Å"no†? I feel he died for us to have a better life and to be dependant for ourselves instead of having Him â€Å"spoon feed† everything to us. He wanted to see that if what he created could function and rely on each other to benefit ourselves.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  God is agape, because he loves us. As you said, Mr. Z, â€Å"God loves us simply because we exist. I am with you one-hundred percent. I understand that completely, because if He did not love us, he would not only let us live, but we would cease to exist. The best example I heard, is how you used your daughter, Maria, and how you said that after 30 some years you still don’t understand agapic love.

Euthymides’ Three Revelers Essay

Euthymides’ Three Revelers is a Greek red-figure vase painting which dates back to about 510 BC. It was found in an Etruscan tomb in Vulci, Italy, where it had probably been imported from Athens. This is proof of the virtuosity of ancient Greek artists, and is quite ironic since the Greeks learned vase painting from the Corinthians. The earliest ancient Greek vase paintings were created using the black-figure technique. This involved using a clay-based slip to draw on the figures and later adding details by incising them into the clay of the vase. Through a process of firing the vase multiple times, the slip would turn black; the silhouetted painted figures contrasted with the natural brown-orange color of the vases. Exekias’ Achilles and Ajax Playing Dice (c. 525-520 BC) is a well-known example of black-figure vase painting. The background of the scene is the natural clay color and all the painted figures are blackened slip with incised details. In Exekias’ painting, there are also details in white on the capes of the two men. The red-figure technique was developed shortly after and is the opposite of black-figure. The background around the figures was painted with slip, leaving them to be detailed with black against the natural color of the vase. This allowed the artist to paint with higher detail since no incisions were necessary. The painting of the Three Revelers is found on a vase used for storing wine called an amphora, so it is appropriate that the three men are celebrating (and indeed reveling) in their drunkenness. The man on the left hasn’t even considered putting down his cup before joining the fun. The scene probably takes place during or after a symposium- a combination drinking party, orgy, and debate. Symposiums were held and attended by aristocratic Greek men, often to debate political, moral, or ethical issues. Perhaps the most famous story of one of these events comes to us by way of literature as Plato’s The Symposium. Euthymides was a rival of Euphronios, who was considered to be the master of red-figure painting. Euphronios’ innovation can be seen in his depiction of  Herakles Wrestling Antaios (c. 510 BC). The two combatants are shown in higher detail and more naturally than any prior work. The giant Antaios is shown grimacing, his hair unkempt, and his body contorted. Herakles, however, shows no signs of struggle: his hair and beard are neat, his face is calm. Perhaps the greatest achievement of the Greek vase painters was their attempt to make art more of an optically correct experience than an ideally correct one. For instance, Herakles’ right foot can be seen tucked behind his leg. The artist’s use of perspective assumes that viewers will understand that Herakles’ calf is behind his thigh, leaving only part of his foot to be seen. Before this point an artist would assume no such thing. His goal and purpose was to show his subjects so that they could be understood and identified by anyone at any time with no conjecture necessary. For instance, the low relief figures chiseled into the Harvester’s Vase (c. 1500 BC), though they are marching from left to right across the scene and we might expect to see them from the side view, are portrayed in the composite profile (profile legs, frontal torso, profile head, frontal eye). Euthymides took this idea of correct optical representation one step further. Whereas the two main figures in Euphronios’ Herakles Wrestling Antaios are shown from the side view and the frontal view, the Three Revelers are shown not from a frontal or rear view, not from a side view or profile, and not in the composite profile used exclusively for centuries prior. They are shown in a three-quarter profile, seen from the side but not completely. The figures recede into the background creating a third dimension: depth. Euthymides knew just how revolutionary this was, so he signed his work with the customary â€Å"Euthymides painted me,† but added â€Å"as never Euphronios [could do].† The three-dimensional foreshortening of painted figures eventually became the artistic standard because of it’s representation of optical experience rather than representation of the ideal, easily identifiable aspects of the body. This can be considered not only an important technical advance, but an artistic one as well. In Onesimos’ Girl Preparing to Bathe (c. 490 BC), the  three-quarter profile lends a flowing, lifelike movement to the subject. Conversely, the contorted composite profile used in the centauromachy detail of Kleitias’ Fraà §ois Vase (c. 570 BC) virtually stops the motion of an otherwise active and exciting scene. The innovation and creativity found in Euthymides’ Three Revelers began to establish the aesthetic, naturalistic focus of Greek art that followed it. Though they were first realized by ancient Greek artists, attention to detail and depiction of figures as they are seen rather than in a universally understood, simplified rendering are indeed two important concepts which can be recognized in any piece of modern visual art. Further, the Three Revelers is the beginning of a dynamic from the ancient techniques of simple representation to the infinite levels of abstraction that we find today in all art forms: music, literature, film, and so on. It should be no surprise that the same culture that turned symbolic portrayals of the world and their own mythology into what we would today call art is the same one that concentrated the eternal search for truth by giving it a name- philosophy, and in both cases provided the basis for all following thought and analyzation.